Prediction and prophylactic treatment of type 1 diabetes

ABSTRACT

An in vitro method for predicting the onset of type 1 diabetes (T1D) in a subject, comprises the steps of: (a) measuring the concentration of at least one amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite in a biological sample taken from the subject; (b) determining the subject&#39;s HLA genotype; (c) assigning the subject&#39;s genetic risk of developing T1D on the basis of the subject&#39;s HLA genotype; (d) combining the information obtained in step (a) with the information in step (c); and (e) predicting the likelihood of onset of T1D based upon the combination of step (d). The diagnostic method can be used to select target subjects for T1D prophylactic treatment, and as part of a T1D preventative treatment regime for neonates having a likelihood of developing childhood T1D.

This invention relates to methods for the prediction of type 1 diabetes,and in particular, to a method for predicting the probable onset of typeI diabetes in children by measuring circulating levels of metabolites inblood, and also to methods for the prophylactic treatment of type 1diabetes.

Diabetes mellitus (“diabetes”) is a medical disorder characterised bypersistent variable hyperglycemia (i.e. high blood sugar levels). It canresult from either inadequate secretion of the hormone insulin, aninadequate response by the body to insulin, or a combination of thesefactors. The most common forms of diabetes are type 1, type 2 andgestational diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D, also known as “childhood”, “juvenile” or“insulin-dependent” diabetes) is most commonly diagnosed in children andadolescents. It is an autoimmune disorder, in which the patient's ownimmune system attacks the beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans of thepancreas—where insulin is produced, and/or the insulin molecule itself.Consequently, patients with clinical T1D require regular insulinreplacement therapy, immunosuppression treatment or even moreexperimental therapies such as islet transplantation and stem celltherapy. However, none of these treatments are ideal. While insulinreplacement therapy and immunosuppression require longterm treatment andcannot irradicate all diabetes induced complications, islettransplantation and stem cell therapy are not widely available and arevery expensive.

Throughout the world the percentage incidence of T1D is increasing, andthis is especially true of the early onset form of T1D, which affectschildren under the age of 4 yrs. Currently in North America T1D affectsapproximately 1 in 300 people and accounts for approximately 10% of alldiabetic cases. T1D is a multigenetic disorder, with up to 20 genesknown to contribute. Of these, the major genetic susceptibilitydeterminants are the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II alleles,HLA-DR and HLA-DQ, which are associated with up to 50% of all T1D cases.However, genetic factors alone cannot account for a person'ssusceptability to the disease. For instance, less than 10% of new T1Dpatients have an affected family member, while the concordance betweengenetically identical twins is only approximately 50%. In addition, theincidence of T1D is rising far too rapidly to be attributed merely tothe inheritance of diabetogenic genes. Thus, it is widely acknowledgedthat non-genetic, environmental factors (e.g. nutrition, infectiousagents) must also play an important role in either the triggering orprogression of the disease process, or both.

Indeed, several prospective studies have suggested that factorsoperating early in life may play an important role in theetiopathogenesis of T1D (Akerblom H. K. et al., 2002, Am. J. Med. Genet.May, 115(1), 18-29). Amongst the environmental factors that may beinvolved, dietary factors operating early in life, i.e. short breastfeeding, early exposure to cow's milk, early introduction of gluten,have been suggested to increase the risk of developing the disease(Virtanen S. M. & Knip M. 2003, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., December, 78(6),1053-1067; and Ziegler A. G. et al., 2003, J. Am. Med. Assoc., October,290(13), 1721-1728).

The non-genetic factors that contribute to T1D susceptibility are evenless well defined than the genetic factors. In particular, there islittle verifiable evidence of the specific contribution of non-geneticfactors to T1D or how such factors interact with and influence the knowngenetic predeterminants.

The clinical onset (i.e. the insulin-dependent stage) of T1D is precededby a sub-clinical phase, that can last up to several years, during whichthe insulin-producing islet cells and/or the patient's insulin areprogressively destroyed. The sub-clinical phase is typicallycharacterised by the presence of autoantibodies, which target one ormore of the subject's islet cells (islet cell antibodies, ICAs), insulin(insulin autoantibodies, IAAs), glutamic acid decarboxylase (glutamicacid decarboxylase autoantibodies, GADAs) and tyrosine phosphatase(tyrosine phosphatase autoantibodies, IA-2As). Accordingly, there ispotentially a window of opportunity during which subjects at risk of T1Dmay be identified for preventative therapy.

Increasingly, combinations of markers are being used to better definethe risk of diabetes. However, while the detection of two or more typesof autoantibody (ICA, IAA, GADA and IA-2A) has been linked to the futureonset of diabetes, significant problems remain in the selection andidentification of subjects having a high probability of developing T1D,and especially of children vulnerable to the early-onset form.

In this regard, until now, the selection of candidates for T1Dpredictive testing has largely focussed on those subjects who have afamily member already with the disease. However, with a less than 10%familial correlation, this approach is entirely inadequate to provide aneffective means of identifying 90% of eventual T1D patients forintervention therapy. Hence, there is a need for a reliable, effectiveand simple method for predicting susceptibility or predisposition toT1D, that can be readily used for large-scale screening of the generalpopulation, rather than of specific genetic sub-groups.

Although children who develop early-onset T1D (i.e. in the period 0-4yrs) may show signs of IAAs even from birth, it is not possible todistinguish neonatal autoantibodies from transplacental maternal IgGs inthe first year of life. Accordingly, of those neonatal children testedand found positive for particular autoantigens, the vast majority maynot ultimately develop T1D.

In view of the rising incidence of T1D in children, the lack of asuitable method for predicting the likely onset of T1D in children, andin view of the potential for an early intervention therapy if it ispredicted sufficiently early in children, it would be particularlydesirable to have an effective method of predicting T1D in children,especially in the first few days of life.

Moreover, given the current lack of a definitive cure for T1D, the needfor frequent, tightly controlled medication, and the potentially fatalconsequences of a lapse in the treatment regime, the most importantdriver for detecting individuals who are at risk of developing T1D isthe potential for a preventative therapy. Thus, it would be desirable toprovide a prophylatic treatment regime for preventing or at leastdelaying the onset of T1D.

This invention aims to overcome or alleviate the problems associatedwith the prior art.

In light of the above, in prospective studies into the development ofearly-onset T1D, the inventors have surprisingly found that neonatalchildren who go on to develop T1D before the age of 4 yrs, displayreduced levels of circulating amino acids in the first few days of life(e.g. 0-3 days), compared with children who do not develop T1D.Significantly, this trend is apparent irrespective of whether thesubject has a low, moderate or high genetic predisposition to T1D basedon his or her HLA genotype.

Thus, in accordance with a first aspect of the invention, there isprovided an in vitro method for predicting the onset of type 1 diabetes(T1D) in a subject, comprising the steps of:

-   -   (a) measuring the concentration of at least one amino acid,        amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite in a biological        sample taken from the subject;    -   (b) determining the subject's HLA genotype;    -   (c) assigning the subject's genetic risk of developing T1D on        the basis of the subject's HLA genotype;    -   (d) combining the information obtained in step (a) with the        information in step (c); and    -   (e) predicting the likelihood of onset of T1D based upon the        combination of step (d).

The amount of one or more amino acid can be measured in a number ofrelatively simple, quick and cost-effective ways, making the method ofthe invention a simple, reliable, quick and economical way of predictingthe likelihood of future onset of T1D in a subject.

Thus, compared with prior art processes for predicting the developmentof T1D, the method of the invention has the advantage that it can beperformed universally (i.e. on any subject, not just those whom havealready been identified as being within a genetically high-risk group).

Indeed, the inventors have surprisingly found that the method of theinvention can be used to predict the likelihood of onset of T1D in anymember of the population, for example, subjects whom, according to theirgenetic markers, may be classified as “high”, “moderate”/“medium” or“low” risk. Preferably, the genetic risk is classified according to thesubject's HLA genotype.

The risk of developing T1D associated with particular HLA genotypes hasbeen reported by a number of research groups (Redondo M. J. et al.,2001, Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 56: 69-89; Ilonen J. et al., 2002, Am. J.Med. Genet. 115(1): 30-6; Mimbacas, A. et al., 2003, Gen. Mole. Res.,2(1), 29-35; Lambert, A. P. et al., 2004, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.,89(8), 4037-4043; and Buzzetti R. et al., 2004, Diabetes Metab. Res.Rev., 20(2), 137-143). The skilled person in the art will appreciatethat since the method of the invention is applicable to subjects havinghigh, medium or low risk HLA genotypes, the method of assigning suchhigh, medium or low genetic risk categories is not essential to theperformance of the invention. Preferably, however, the subject isassigned a genetic risk according to categorisation reported in BuzzettiR. et al. (2004, Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev., March-April, 20(2),137-143), the teaching of which is incorporated herein in its entirety.

Hence, a high risk HLA genotype typically comprises the genetic markers:

-   -   DRB1*03/*04 (not 0403), DQB1 0302.

A moderate or medium risk HLA genotype typically comprises the geneticmarkers:

-   -   DRB1*04 (not 0403)/*04 (not 0403), DQB1 0302;    -   DRB1*04 (not 0403)/X, DQB1 0302/DQB1 not 0602-3)    -   DRB1*03/*03; and    -   DRB1*03/X, DQB1 not 0602-3, not 0301, not 0503;        wherein X is not DRB1*03, *04, or 0403.

A low risk HLA genotype comprises any combination of genetic markers notspecified above.

In step (a) of the first aspect of the invention, the concentration ofone or more amino acid, and/or amino acid derivative and/or amino acidmetabolite is measured in a sample taken from a subject.

The term “amino acid” within the scope of the present invention is usedin its broadest sense and is meant to include naturally occurring Lα-amino acids or residues. The commonly used one and three letterabbreviations for naturally occurring amino acids are used herein(Lehninger, A. L., 1975, Biochemistry, 2d ed., pp. 71-92, WorthPublishers, New York). The general term “amino acid” further includesD-amino acids, where such occur naturally in the human or animal body.The term amino acid also encompasses naturally occurring amino acidsthat are not usually incorporated into proteins such as norleucine.

There are 20 common, naturally occuring amino acids that form thebuilding blocks of human proteins, namely: alanine (Ala, A), arginine(Arg, R), asparagines (Asn, N), aspartic acid (aspartate, Asp, D),cysteine (Cys, C), glutamic acid (glutamate, Glu, E), glutamine (Gln,Q), glycine (Gly, G), histidine (His, H), isoleucine (Ile, I), leucine(Leu, L), lysine (Lys, K), methionine (Met, M), phenylalanine (Phe, F),proline (Pro, P), serine (Ser, S), threonine (Thr, T), tryptophan (Trp,W), tyrosine (Tyr, Y), and valine (Val, V).

Eight amino acids are generally regarded as essential for humans:tryptophan, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine,leucine, and isoleucine. This means that they cannot be synthesised denovo within the human body. Two others, histidine and arginine are oftenconsidered to be essential in children and possibly also in the elderly,because they cannot be synthesised at a sufficient rate to meet thebody's needs.

Furthermore, in some case, the distinction between essential andnon-essential amino acids is a little blurred, because some amino acidscan in fact be produced from others. For example, the sulfur-containingamino acids, methionine and homocysteine, can be converted into eachother but neither can be synthesised de novo in humans. Likewise,cysteine can be made from homocysteine, but cannot be synthesised on itsown. Hence, for convenience, sulfur-containing amino acids may sometimesbe considered as a single pool of nutritionally-equivalent amino acids.Similarly, arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which areinterconvertible via the urea cycle, are sometimes considered to be asingle group of amino acids.

As used herein, the “essential” amino acids are the 8 first listedabove, and in the case of a neonate, the essential amino acids alsoinclude histidine and arginine.

The remaining 10 or 12 of the above-listed 20 amino acids are consideredherein as “non-essential” amino acids in humans, which means that theycan be synthesised de novo in the human body.

Other examples of amino acids are listed by Roberts and Vellaccio, ThePeptides: Analysis, Synthesis, Biology, Gross and Meiehofer, eds., Vol.5 p. 341, Academic Press, Inc., N.Y. 1983, which is incorporated hereinby reference.

As used herein, the terms amino acid “derivative” or “metabolite” referto naturally occurring, amino acids or small peptides, which do not fallwithin the 20 amino acids (above) that occur commonly in naturalproteins and peptides. Such derivatives include, for example, chemicallymodified amino acids, dipeptides (molecules that are based on twocovalently bonded amino acids) and tripeptides (molecules that are basedon three covalently bonded amino acids), which are typically synthesisedby the breakdown of proteins or the assembly of free amino acids in thehuman body. Examples of amino acid derivatives include carnitine,acylcarnitine, glutathione, ornithine, taurine, citrulline,hydroxyproline, gamma-amino-butyric acid, cystine and aminoacetic acid.Amino acids metabolites are naturally occurring compounds that areproduced as intermediates or as by-products in the biosynthesis of aminoacids or of amino acid derivatives, and include, for exampleoxoglutarate and creatine. For the purposes of this invention, the terms“derivative” and “metabolite” are not exclusive, in the sense that someamino acid derivatives may also be considered to be amino acidmetabolites, e.g. taurine.

Preferably in the methods of the invention, the one or more amino acid,amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite whose concentration ismeasured, is selected from the group consisting of: alanine, arginine,aspartate, citrulline, glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine,isoleucine, methionine, ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine andvaline.

More preferably, in step (a) of the methods of the invention, theconcentration of two or more amino acids, amino acid derivatives oramino acid metabolites are measured. Still more preferably, in step (a)the concentration of essential amino acids or of non-essential aminoacids is measured.

Most preferably, the total concentration of all 15 of the amino acids,amino acid derivatives and amino acid metabolites of the abovepreferable embodiment of the invention is measured.

The concentration of amino acids, amino acid derivatives and amino acidmetabolites in a sample taken from a subject can be measured using anysuitable means/equipment known to the person of skill in the art.Conveniently the means will be capable of measuring more than one suchamino acids, amino acid derivatives or amino acid metabolites in asingle sample at the same time. Advantageously, the technique used willbe relatively rapid, for example, capable of generating results (or atleast allowing the interpretation of the results) within 24 hours of thestart of the procedure. Preferably, the technique will be capable ofanalysing samples in a high-throughput manner, to allow the processingof a plurality of samples in a day. Furthermore, it is beneficial forthe equipment used to be widely available so that it is possible toreadily analyse samples in appropriate regions of the world. Forexample, suitable means for measuring the concentrations of amino acids,amino acid derivatives and amino acid metabolites include massspectrophotometry (e.g. tandem mass spectrometry) and HPLC. Preferably,tandem mass spectrometry is used, for the reasons given above.

In accordance with the invention, a likelihood of onset of T1D in asubject is predicted on the basis of the measured concentration of oneor more amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite in asample taken from the subject in view of the subject's HLA genotype riskcategory. Advantageously, the methods of the invention can be used topredict the onset of T1D whatever the HLA genotype risk category of thesubject, and it is therefore suitable for entire population screening.

The likelihood of onset of T1D is thus a function of the subject's HLAgenotype and the relative concentration of the amino acids, amino acidderivatives or amino acid metabolites. As such, the method provides adistinct advantage over predictions based on a subject's genotype only,which as suggested above can largely ignore non-genetic (e.g.environmental) factors that influence a person's probability ofdeveloping T1D.

Thus, where the subject has the high risk HLA genotype (as definedabove), a likelihood of onset of T1D can be predicted when the subject'stotal concentration of alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline,glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine,ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine is less thanapproximately 1200 μmol/L, less than 1100 μmol/L, less than 1000 μmol/L,or less than 900 μmol/L.

Preferably, the amino acid concentration in a subject having a high riskHLA genotype is indicative of a likelihood of onset of T1D, where theabove total amino acid concentration is in the range of 500-1200 μmol/L,600-1100 μmol/L, 700-1000 μmol/L, or 800-900 μmol/L.

Most preferably, the total amino acid concentration for a subject withthe high risk HLA genotype is approximately 850 μmol/L.

Where the subject has a medium (moderate) or low risk HLA genotype (asdefined above), there is a likelihood of onset of T1D, where the totalconcentration of the amino acids, amino acid derivatives or amino acidmetabolites; alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline, glycine,glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, ornithine,phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine is less than 1000 μmol/L,less than 900 μmol/L, less than 800 μmol/L or less than 700 μmol/L.

Preferably, the amino acid concentration in a subject having a medium orlow risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likelihood of onset of T1D,where the above total amino acid concentration is approximately 300-1000μmol/L, 400-900 μmol/L, 500-800 μmol/L or 600-700 μmol/L.

Most preferably, the total amino acid concentration for a subject withthe medium or low risk HLA genotype is approximately 650 μmol/L.

The subject's HLA genotype and thus his/her genetic risk of developingT1D can be determined using any appropriate and available means. Forinstance, the subject's HLA genotype may already be known, e.g. throughfamilial screening.

Where the HLA genotype must be determined de novo, any suitable means ofgenetic screening can be used. For example, a sample taken from thesubject may be analysed e.g. by PCR, serologic techniques or by DNAmicroarray technology. Advantageously, the technique used is PCR, forexample, as described in Galgani A. et al. (2004), Human Immunology65(4): 366-372. A sample of the subject's DNA may be obtained from theblood and any suitable body tissue or fluid, although preferably thesame sample is also used for the measurement of amino acidconcentrations.

The inventors have further found that the concentration of carnitine(i.e. free carnitine) and/or acylcarnitine can similarly be used incombination with a subjects HLA genotype risk category to predict thelikelihood of onset of T1D.

Carnitine (L-carnitine) is a pseudo-amino acid (i.e. a dipeptide) thatcan be synthesised from protein-bound lysine and methionine residues.However, a human's daily requirement is generally met by food intake.Carnitine is known to help regulate fat metabolism and lower cholesteroland triglyceride levels. It is important in preventing fat build-up inthe heart, and it helps to prevent the build-up of ketones (fatwaste-products) in the blood. Carnitine is typically interconverted withacylcarnitine (mainly acetyl-L-carnitine), which is involved in thetransportation of fatty acids across mitochondrial membranes and isthought to improve cerebral blood flow. Both molecules can be detectedin e.g. a human blood sample.

Thus, in a further embodiment of the invention, the methods preferablyfurther comprise the steps of:

(a′) measuring the concentration of at least one of, free carnitine,acylcarnitine and total carnitine in a sample taken from said subject;and

(d′) combining the information obtained in step (a′) with theinformation in step (c); and

(e′) predicting the likelihood of onset of T1D based upon thecombination of step (d′).

The concentration of at least one of, free carnitine, acylcarnitine andtotal carnitine can be used in the absence of information on theconcentration of one or more amino acids to predict the likelihood ofonset of T1D in a subject based on his/her HLA genotype. However,preferably, the method involves the measurement of amino acids(derivatives and metabolites) and of (total) carnitine, such that theprediction of the likelihood of onset of T1D [step (e′)] is based uponthe combination of step (d) and the combination of step (d′).

More preferably, in step (a′) the concentrations of free carnitine,acylcarnitine and total carnitine are measured.

As in the case of amino acid (derivative and metabolite) concentrations,the concentrations of carnitine (free carnitine) and/or acylcarnitinecan be measured using any appropriate means. Such means are known to theperson of skill in the art, and may be selected according to theabove-discussed desirable features. Thus, preferably the concentrationof carnitine is measured using mass spectrophotometry and morepreferably using tandem mass spectrophotometry.

As in the case of amino acid concentrations, the likelihood of onset ofT1D is a function of the subject's HLA genotype and the relativeconcentration of his/her carnitine, acylcarnitine and total carnitine.Thus, the method provides a further advantage over T1D predictions basedsolely on a subject's genotype.

Thus, where the subject has the high risk HLA genotype (as definedabove), a likelihood of onset of T1D can be predicted when the subject'stotal carnitine concentration (which includes the sum of free carnitineand acylcarnitine concentrations) is less than approximately 50 μmol/L,45 μmol/L, 42 μmol/L, 40 μmol/L or 38 μmol/L.

Preferably, the total carnitine concentration in a subject having a highrisk HLA genotype is indicative of a likelihood of onset of T1D, wherethe above total amino acid concentration is in the range 20-50 μmol/L,25-45 μmol/L, 28-42 μmol/L, 30-40 μmol/L or 32-38 μmol/L.

Most preferably, the total carnitine concentration for a subject withthe high risk HLA genotype is approximately 35 μmol/L.

Where the subject has the medium or low risk HLA genotype (as definedabove), a likelihood of onset of T1D can be predicted when the subject'stotal carnitine concentration is less than approximately 40 μmol/L, 35μmol/L, 32 μmol/L, 30 μmol/L or 28 μmol/L.

Preferably, where the subject has the medium or low risk HLA genotype,the carnitine concentration is indicative of the likely future onset ofT1D where the total carnitine concentration is in the range 10-40μmol/L, 15-35 μmol/L, 18-32 μmol/L, 20-30 μmol/L or 22-28 μmol/L.

Most preferably, the total carnitine concentration for a subject withone of the medium or low risk HLA genotypes is approximately 26 μmol/L.

Advantageously, a portion or aliquot of the same sample that is used forthe measurement of amino acid (derivative and metabolite) concentrationsis used for the measurement of free carnitine, acylcarnitine and totalcarnitine. In this way, multiple samples do not necessarily have to betaken from the same subject. This is particularly beneficial where thesubject is a neonate, for whom the taking of multiple samples may be atraumatic experience.

Furthermore, the sample used for measuring amino acid concentrations instep (a), or of carnitine concentrations in step (a′) is the same samplethat is used for determining the subject′s HLA genotype. Thus,preferably a portion or aliquot of the sample used in step (a) is usedfor genetic screening in step (b).

Preferably, the sample taken from the subject is a body fluid sample,and more preferably the sample is a blood sample. In this regard, theconcentrations of amino acids, carnitine and acylcarnitine describedherein are reported as μmol per litre of blood. For other body fluids(e.g. urine and saliva) the normal and reduced concentrations of aminoacids, carnitine and acylcarnitine may have to be adjusted.

Preferably the sample (e.g. blood) has been taken from the subjectwithin 3 days (i.e. 72 hours) of the subject's birth. Thus, the subjectis a neonate. As used herein, the term “neonate” refers to a person whomis less than 72 hours old.

A further advantage of the invention is that the measurements of aminoacids (derivatives and metabolites) and (total) carnitine concentrationcan be performed reliably and accurately on a neonate, without thepotential inaccuracies/misleading results that can be associated withneonatal levels of, for example, autoantibodies. This offers thepotential to more reliably predict the likelihood on onset of T1Dcompared to prior art methods.

In addition, the speed and simplicity of the methods described hereinmean that it is possible to complete the methods of the invention in theperiod while the subject remains a neonate. This offers the benefit thatwhere a likelihood of onset of T1D is predicted, possible interventiontherapies can be begun soon after birth (e.g. while the subject is stilla neonate), which may maximise the chance of attaining an effectivetreatment that prevents onset of T1D later in life.

Hence, in accordance with a second aspect of the invention, there isprovided a method for identifying a neonatal subject for enrolment ontoa potential prophylactic treatment program for the prevention of T1D,which comprises performing the steps of any method of the invention soas to identify a neonate having a likelihood of onset of T1D andenrolling said neonate into a prophylactic treatment program.

Once a subject has been identified who has a likelihood of developingT1D, it is advantageous to begin preventative (i.e. prophylactic)therapies as soon as possible. This is particularly true in cases wherethe subject is a neonate.

In this regard, during the first few days of life a normal process ofthymic selection eliminates virtually all potentially dangerouscytotoxic T-cells that may otherwise attack self-antigens. This processoccurs as an important and necessary part of the transition from a babythat is physically connected to its mother (via the placenta), to aneonate that must become self-sufficient. Accordingly, T-cells that areautoreactive to insulin or pancreatic beta cells are typicallyeliminated in the thymus of normal individuals.

Without being bound by theory, it is thought that circulating aminoacids and carnitine may influence the selection, development ordestruction of T1D-relevant cytotoxic T-cells. It is hypothesised thatlow levels of amino acids and carnitine may interfere with the thymicselection process and therefore, dangerous lymphocytes escape the thymicselection, enter the subject's circulating blood and go to populate theperipheral lymphoid tissue, such as lymph nodes. The presence of suchautoreactive T-cells represents a risk that that individual will developT1D (as discussed above). Even then, it is possible that otherenvironmental factors (e.g. viruses, dietary factors etc.) canadditionally trigger the progression to the diseased state.

By initiating a T1D prophylactic treatment as early as possible in thesubject's life, and particularly during the first 3 days of life, theprospects of eliminating the risk of developing T1D later in life willbe increased.

Thus, in accordance with a third aspect of the invention, there isprovided a method for the prophylactic treatment for T1D, whichcomprises the steps of:

(a) performing the steps of any of the diagnostic methods of theinvention;

(b) identifying one or more subject having a likelihood of onset of T1D;and

(c) prescribing to said one or more subject a prophylactic treatment forpreventing or delaying the onset of T1D.

Optionally, the prophylactic treatment in step (c) comprises insulinreplacement therapy.

In addition or in the alternative, the prophylactic treatment in step(c) may comprise immunomodulation therapy. Preferably, theimmunomodulation therapy comprises anti-CD3 treatment and photopheresis.

In particular, it would be beneficial to influence the natural processof thymic selection in a neonate, such that a greater proportion (orall) of the auto-reactive T-cells involved in the development of T1D aredestroyed before disease progression is enabled. In this way,progression to the T1D disease state may be delayed or even prevented.

In this regard, again without being bound by theory, it is thought thatby administering appropriate amount of amino acids, amino acidderivatives, amino acid metabolites, and/or carnitine, to neonateshaving relatively low circulating levels of one or more of thesemolecules (i.e. low levels in view of the subject's HLA genotype riskcategory), then the process of thymic selection may be returned to astringency that is sufficient to eliminate T1D-relevant auto-reactiveT-cells.

Thus, in a particularly preferred embodiment of the third aspect of theinvention, the prophylactic treatment in step (c) comprises a dietarysupplement. More preferably, the dietary supplement comprises an aminoacid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite supplement. Inaddition or in the alternative, the dietary supplement comprises acarnitine or acylcarnitine supplement.

Accordingly, in a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided amethod of treating a neonate identified as having a predisposition toT1D, comprising:

administering a prophylactic composition that comprises one or moreamino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite in an amountsufficient to increase blood amino acid, amino acid derivative or aminoacid metabolite levels to within the normal range.

Preferably, in the methods of the fourth aspect of the invention, theamino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite is selectedfrom the group consisting of: alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline,glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine,ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine.

More preferably, the prophylactic composition comprises all of alanine,arginine, aspartate, citrulline, glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine,isoleucine, methionine, ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine andvaline, and is administered in amounts sufficient to return/restoretotal blood amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolitelevels to within the normal range.

The prophylactic composition may comprise free carnitine and/oracylcarnitine instead of the above-listed 15 amino acids. However, in apreferred embodiment, the prophylactic composition further comprises(i.e. in addition to amino acids, derivatives and metabolites) freecarnitine and/or acylcarnitine and said administering comprisesadministering free carnitine and/or acylcarnitine in amounts sufficientto return/restore free carnitine, acylcarnitine or total carnitinelevels to within the normal range.

As the person of skill in the art will appreciate, the prophylacticcompositions of the invention may be administered by any suitable means.In one embodiment, the prophylactic composition is administered orally.

Advantageously, the means of administration is suitable for neonates. Ina preferred embodiment, therefore, the composition is administeredparenterally, most preferably intravenously. Typically, saidadministering is in the form of a bolus injection, and still morepreferably the composition is formulated as a slow release composition.

The time period over which the prophylactic treatment is administeredmay vary greatly depending on the type of treatment selected, or on thelikely timescale of development of T1D. For example, it may be necessaryto administer the treatment for the life of the subject, or untilsuitable follow-up tests demonstrate that the subject no longer has alikelihood of developing T1D. Alternatively, where a particular risktime-period can be identified, it may be sufficient to cease treatmentat the end of that period. For instance, In the case of a predispositionto early-onset T1D (i.e. T1D that develops within the first 4 years of aperson's life), in may be sufficient to cease treatment at the end ofthis 4 year period.

The skilled person in the art can determine such periods by carrying outtests for T1D indicators at relevant intervals. For example, the skilledperson could repeat the diagnostic methods of the invention at repeatedintervals during the individual's life, or simply measure amino acidlevels at repeated intervals.

In this regard, the above timeframes of treatment may advantageously befollowed for treatments such as immunomodulation therapy and/or insulinreplacement therapy and/or photopheresis.

In the case of a neonate who has been identified as having a likelihoodof developing T1D, however, the prophylactic treatment is preferablyadministered for at least the period during which the subject isclassified a neonate (i.e. up to 3 days old). The period of time duringwhich the prophylactic treatment/composition is administered maytherefore vary according to when the method of the invention is carriedout to predict the likelihood of onset of T1D.

Thus, where the subject is a neonate the prophylactictreatment/composition is preferably administered for at least 24 hours,at least 48 hours or at least 72 hours. Advantageously, the prophylactictreatment/composition is administered for less than 4 years, less than 3years, less than 2 years or less than 1 year. Preferably, theprophylactic treatment/composition is administered until the subject isat least 3 days old (i.e. during the neonatal period of life).

Advantageously, during the treatment period (e.g. during the neonatalperiod), the prophylactic treatment is continuously effective.

The preferred form of prophylactic composition for use with neonatalsubjects is a dietary supplement, and more preferably, a compositioncomprising one or more amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acidmetabolite and/or said free carnitine and/or acylcarnitine.

Hence, in a preferred embodiment, there is provided a method accordingto the fourth aspect of the invention, wherein the prophylacticcomposition is administered in an amount sufficient to restore to withinthe normal range the blood level of said one or more amino acid, aminoacid derivative or amino acid metabolite and/or said free carnitineand/or acylcarnitine and maintain said normal range for the duration ofthe neonatal period of the subject.

Since, each individual/subject may develop at a slightly different rate,it is convenient to sometime continue the prophylactic treatmentslightly beyond the defined “neonatal period”. Therefore, preferably,the above duration is at least 48 hours, more preferably at least 60hours, and still more preferably at least 72 hours.

All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in theirentirety. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific termsused herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one ofordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs.

The invention is further illustrated by the accompanying drawings inwhich:

FIG. 1 is a graph showing the relationship between the totalconcentration of amino acids in blood samples taken from T1D patientsand non-diabetic negative controls, in comparison to their HLA genotyperisk category. The Medium/moderate and low HLA risk categories aregrouped together. The boxes indicate the 75^(th) percentile (top of box)and the 25^(th) percentile (bottom of box).

FIG. 2 is a graph showing the relationship between the totalconcentration of carnitine and acylcarnitine in blood samples taken fromT1D patients and non-diabetic negative controls, in comparison to theirHLA genotype risk category. Medium/moderate and low HLA risk categoriesare grouped together. The boxes indicate the 75^(th) percentile (top ofbox) and the 25^(th) percentile (bottom of box).

FIG. 3 is a graph showing the relationship between the totalconcentration of amino acids in blood samples taken from T1D patientsand non-diabetic negative controls, in comparison to their HLA genotyperisk category, plotted in the 95% confidence interval. Medium/moderateand low HLA risk categories are grouped together.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the relationship between the totalconcentration of carnitine and acylcarnitine in blood samples taken fromT1D patients and non-diabetic negative controls, in comparison to theirHLA genotype risk category, plotted in the 95% confidence interval.Medium/moderate and low HLA risk categories are grouped together.

EXAMPLE

(i) Methods

A prospective study was conducted to determine the relevance ofconcentration of circulating amino acids, amino acid derivatives, aminoacid metabolites, free carnitine and acylcarnitine to the futuredevelopment of type 1 diabetes (T1D).

Diabetic patients were identified from within the Unit of Diabetology atthe Bambino Gesù Paediatric Hospital in Rome. Controls were selectedfrom 1650 children, who were HLA typed at birth for geneticsusceptibility to develop T1D (Buzzetti R. et al. 2004, Diabetes MetabRes Rev. 20(2): 137-43).

As a criteria of inclusion, children had be born in Lazio betweenJanuary 2000 and December 2002 and T1D had to be developed by the age of4 years. These criteria were adopted in order to: 1) have thepossibility of retrieving dry blood spot samples; 2) reduce the timeelapsing between birth and conducting the assays; and 3) identifycontrols matched for age, sex and genetic HLA risk categories (i.e.high, moderate/medium and low), defined as previously described inBuzzetti R. et al. 2004, supra.

Overall, 11 diabetic children fulfilled the selection criteria and 44matched controls were identified. These 11 diabetic children representnearly all of the children who have developed T1D in the first 4 yearsof life from a sample size of 150,000 children born in the Lazio regionover the relevant time period. Information regarding the subjects usedin the study is provided in Table 1.

Informed consent was obtained from parents of all children.

Information regarding birth weight, gestational age at birth and feedingin the first week of life was recorded.

Blood dry spots were retrieved from the two centers in charge ofneonatal screenings (e.g. congenital hypothyroidism and phenylketonuria)in the same region. All spots were collected within the first days afterbirth (i.e. during the neonatal period) and stored at room temperatureuntil the analysis. Once samples had been identified, they were codedand no information regarding T1D status was available before the resultsof the study had been obtained.

For each blood spot, concentrations of 15 amino acids (in 13categories), along with the concentrations of total carnitine (TC), freecarnitine (FC) and acylcarnitine (AC) were measured and recorded (seeTable 2). Internal AC and amino acid standards were provided byCambridge Isotopes Laboratories, Andover, Mass., USA.

Carnitine and amino acids were analyzed on filter paper (W903) bloodspots as butyl esters. The butylated samples were tested with a tandemmass spectrometer (Sciex API 365, PE Sciex Instrument, Concord, ON,Canada). This mass spectrophotometer is routinely used for neonatal massscreening. Quality control of the methods for measuring amino acids,carnitine and acylcarnitine was performed by Dr Piero Rinaldo, (MayoClinic, Ronchester, Minn., USA).

TC, FC, AC and AC/FC ratio were analyzed. Amino acids were also studiedas the algebraic sum of essential, non-essential and total amino acidconcentrations. The Mann-Whitney U-Test was used for comparison ofcontinuous variables. Frequencies of qualitative variables wereevaluated using Fisher's exact test. A two-tailed P value of less than0.05 was considered to be significant. All analyses were performed usingSPSS 11.5.1 for Windows Package (LEAD Technologies, Inc).

(ii) Results

Referring to Table 1, among the 11 diabetic children, 4 were found topossess the high risk HLA genotype for developing T1D; 6 were found tohave the medium/moderate risk HLA genotypes; and 1 had a low risk HLAgenotype.

The median age at the onset of T1D was 2.7 years, and onset age rangedfrom 1.1 to 3.8 years.

No differences were seen in reference to gestational age at birth, birthweight and type of feeding in the first week of life (P=0.438, P=0.408and P=0.522, respectively). Thus, in this sample it did not appear thatfeeding on formula milk or breast milk was relevant.

The time elapsing from the collection of blood spots to the performanceof the assays was comparable in the two groups (P=0.191), so it isconsidered that any slight differences were insignificant.

Turning to Table 2 and FIGS. 1 and 3, it can be seen that the diabeticpatients displayed lower levels of all of the measured amino acids thandid the non-diabetic controls. Moreover, the concentrations of the aminoacids Ala, Gly, Glu/Gln, Leu/Ile, Orn, Phe and Pro were seen to besignificantly lower in diabetic subjects than in the non-diabeticcontrol subjects. Overall, total amino acid concentrations weresignificantly lower in diabetic patients than in controls, as were thelevels of essential amino acids and non-essential amino acids. Althoughthe concentration of the essential amino acids shown in Table 2 does notinclude that of arginine (which is essential in neonates), if arginineis included in the “essential” amino acid subgroup, rather than in the“non-essential” subgroup, the above observation regarding the relativelevels of amino acids remains true.

FIG. 1 shows the total amino acid concentrations measured in bloodsamples of either T1D patients or non-diabetic controls, depending ontheir HLA genotype risk category. The boxes indicate the 25^(th) to the75^(th) percentile. In addition to the lower relative concentration ofamino acids found in the samples of T1D patients, the range of totalamino acid concentrations measured appears to be narrower in the T1Dpatients.

FIG. 3 shows the 95% confidence interval (95% CI) of the total aminoacid concentrations measured in blood samples of either T1D patients ornon-diabetic controls, displayed according to the subject's HLA genotyperisk category. Again, it can be seen that the amino acid concentrationsare significantly lower in the T1D patients than in the non-diabeticcontrols.

Also from Table 2 and FIGS. 2 and 4, it can be seen that circulating TC,FC and AC concentrations were significantly lower in diabetic patientscompared to the non-diabetic controls. However, essentially nodifferences were detected in the AC/FC ratio.

FIG. 2 shows the total carnitine concentrations measured in bloodsamples of either T1D patients or non-diabetic controls, depending ontheir HLA genotype risk category. The boxes indicate the 25^(th) to the75^(th) percentile. Again, in addition to the lower relative amount ofcarnitine found in the samples of T1D patients, the range of totalcarnitine concentrations measured appears to be narrower in the T1Dpatients.

FIG. 4 shows the 95% confidence interval (95% CI) of the total carnitineconcentrations measured in blood samples of either T1D patients ornon-diabetic controls, displayed according to the subject's HLA genotyperisk category. Again, it can be seen that the carnitine concentrationsare significantly lower in the T1D patients than in the non-diabeticcontrols.

The data used in FIGS. 1 and 2 is displayed in Table 3 and the data usedin FIGS. 3 and 4 is displayed in Table 4.

(iii) Conclusions

This is the first demonstration that neonates who go on to develop T1Dearly in life (i.e. in the first 4 years) display reduced concentrationsof amino acids and of carnitine during the neonatal period.

Since this investigation was carried out retrospectively on dried bloodspots stored at room temperature, as a control, 80 dried blood spotstaken from children of the same region, and which have undergone similarstorage conditions in the same centers for two and four years,respectively, have been tested using the same tandem mass spectrometerused for the Example.

Values of amino acids and of TC, FC and AC, were measured and found tobe very similar in the two sample sets (inventors' unpublished results).In the Example described, since the time elapsing between bloodcollection and the conduction of the assays was similar betweendiabetics and controls, and was carried out in the time range of 2-4years, the differences in amino acid and carnitine concentrations notedbetween diabetics and non-diabetic controls can be considered not to bedue to the latency between blood collection and sample testing.

For the reasons already discussed with regard to Table 1, it is alsopossible to exclude the differences in the type of feeding, because theproportion of children whom were breast-fed or whom were fed formulamilk was comparable between the two groups.

It is therefore concluded that children who later developed T1D early inlife have reduced levels of circulating amino acids and carnitine atbirth or soon after birth (i.e. during the neonatal period). Thus, lowlevels of amino acids and of carnitine may be viewed as additionalmarkers for predicting the future onset of T1D in children, irrespectiveof their perceived genetic susceptibility.

The determination of these compounds is easy to do and can be routinelyapplied in population screenings. Hence, new perspectives for thetesting of all newborn children, to predict the likely onset of T1D, andif necessary commence a suitable prophylactic treatment regime areapparent.

TABLE 1 Characteristics of diabetic children and matched controlsDiabetic Control Patients children (N = 11) (N = 44) Significance P M:F7:4 28:16 — HLA risk category high 4 16 — moderate 6 24 low 1  4Gestational age at birth 39 (37–41)  39 (30–41)  0.438 (weeks) Birthweight (Kg) 3.5 (3.0–4.1) 3.4 (1.6–4.8) 0.408 Feeding during the 1^(st)week only breast milk 6 26 0.522 formula or mixed 5 18 Age at onset ofT1D (yrs) 2.7 (1.1–3.8) — — Age at metabolic 3.9 (2.5–5.0) 3.2 (1.6–4.9)0.191 evaluation (yrs) Values are expressed as number of cases or asmedian (range).

TABLE 2 Carnitine and amino acid concentrations (μmol/L) in blood dryspots collected within the first three days of life Diabetic PatientsControl children (N = 11) (N = 44) Significance P Total carnitine 29.9(14.8–38.9) 39.5 (19.7–96.1) 0.004 Free carnitine 19.0 (6.8–25.6) 24.7(11.7–68.9) 0.009 Acylcarnitine 10.7 (7.8–16.3) 16.5 (8.0–27.2) 0.009Acyl/free ratio 0.7 (0.4–1.2) 0.6 (0.3–1.2) 0.556 Alanine (Ala) 82.5(50.7–174.4) 140.8 (50.1–526.7) 0.037 Arginine (Arg) 15.1 (10–34.6) 17.4(7.3–49.0) 0.599 Aspartate (Asp) 35.9 (15.8–70.4) 42.9 (18.0–152.9)0.461 Citrulline (Cit) 4.6 (2.9–13.3) 6.8 (2.4–22.1) 0.064 Glycine (Gly)80.9 (49.8–131.2) 122.1 (66.0–354.7) 0.002 Glutammate/Glutammine(Glu/Gln) 223.8 (114.4–332.1) 314.0 (211.2–578.1) 0.002*Leucine/Isoleucine (Leu/Xle) 60.9 (42.2–84.6) 86.9 (51.5–191.2) <0.001*Methionine (Met) 3.6 (1.9–8.2) 4.4 (1.3–10.9) 0.326 Ornitine (Orn) 6.7(4.0–16.8) 11.0 (3.4–34.8) 0.001 *Phenylalanine (Phe) 15.2 (3.9–29.8)24.9 (12.4–54.8) 0.001 Proline (Pro) 45.3 (24.4–73.7) 73.9 (34.2–128.5)0.002 Thyrosine (Thy) 26.4 (14.1–65.2) 32.3 (13.7–80.3) 0.323 *Valine(Val) 59.8 (29.8–150) 67.8 (10–250) 0.192 Essential aminoacids 134(91–242) 177 (120–426) 0.003 Non essential aminoacids 549 (424–852) 781(465–1805) 0.003 Total aminoacids 677 (515–1016) 954 (618–2230) 0.003Values are expressed as median (range) *Essential amino acids (excludingarginine)

TABLE 3 Total amino acid and carnitine concentrations measured insamples taken from subjects with either the high risk HLA genotype orwith the moderate or low risk HLA genotypes (as plotted in FIGS. 1 and 2respectively) moderate high risk high risk or low risk moderate or lowrisk diabetics controls diabetics controls (Nr = 4) (Nr = 16) (Nr = 7)(Nr = 28) Total amino acids (μmol/L) maximum 1016.4 2231 909.6 1628.375^(th) percentile 996.4 1543 677.2 1191.7 median 836.8 1229.6 673.3 84925^(th) percentile 735.8 960.5 520.5 715.9 minimum 735.2 618.5 515.6632.2 Total carnitine (μmol/L) maximum 38.9 69.6 31.8 96.1 75^(th)percentile 38.4 57.1 31.78 44.8 median 35.4 49.2 26.4 37.8 25^(th)percentile 30.7 31.8 18.9 30.2 minimum 29.7 19.7 14.8 25.3

TABLE 4 Total amino acid and carnitine concentrations measured insamples taken from subjects with either the high risk HLA genotype orwith the moderate or low risk HLA genotypes (as plotted in FIGS. 3 and 4respectively) moderate moderate or high risk high risk or low risk lowrisk diabetics controls diabetics controls (Nr = 4) (Nr = 16) (Nr = 7)(Nr = 28) Total amino acids (μmol/L) 95% CI upper limit 1082.9 1493.4774.5 1039.7 95% CI lower limit 629.8 1035.6 523.2 833.2 95% CI midpoint856.3 1264.5 648.8 936.5 Total carnitine (μmol/L) 95% CI upper limit41.3 53.2 31.3 46.9 95% CI lower limit 28.4 37.1 19.1 35.1 95% CImidpoint 34.9 45.1 25.2 41

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1. An in vitro method for predicting the onset of type 1 diabetes (T1D) in a subject, comprising the steps of: (a) measuring the concentration of at least one amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite in a biological sample taken from the subject; (b) determining the subject's HLA genotype; (c) assigning the subject's genetic risk of developing T1D on the basis of the subject's HLA genotype; (d) combining the information obtained in step (a) with the information in step (c); and (e) predicting the likelihood of onset of T1D based upon the combination of step (d).
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein in step (c) the genetic risk is assigned as “high”, “moderate” or “low” according to the subject's HLA genotype.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein a high risk HLA genotype comprises the genetic markers: DRB1*03/*04 (not 0403), DQB1
 0302. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein a moderate/medium risk HLA genotype comprises the genetic markers: DRB1*04 (not 0403)/*04 (not 0403), DQB1 0302; DRB1*04 (not 0403)/X, DQB1 0302/DQB1 not 0602-3) DRB1*03/*03; DRB1*03/X, DQB1 not 0602-3, not 0301, not 0503; wherein X is not DRB1*03, *04, or
 0403. 5. The method of claim 2, wherein a low risk HLA genotype comprises any combination of genetic markers not specified in claim 3 or claim
 4. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite is selected from the group consisting of: alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline, glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein in step (a) the concentration of two or more amino acids, amino acid derivatives or amino acid metabolites are measured.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein in step (a) the concentration of essential amino acids is measured.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein in step (a) the concentration of non-essential amino acids is measured.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein in step (a) a total concentration of the amino acids, amino acid derivatives and amino acid metabolites is measured, wherein the amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite is alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline, glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein in step (e) a total amino acid concentration of less than approximately 1200 μmol/L in combination with a high risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein a total amino acid concentration of approximately 500-1200 μmol/L in combination with a high risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein in step (e) a total amino acid concentration of less than approximately 1000 μmol/L in combination with a moderate or low risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 14. The method of claim 10, wherein a total amino acid concentration of approximately 300-1000 μmol/L in combination with a moderate or low risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 15. The method of claim 1, additionally comprising the steps of: (a′) measuring the concentration of at least one of: free carnitine, acylcarnitine and total carnitine in a sample taken from said subject; and (d′) combining the information obtained in step (a′) with the information in step (c); and (e′) predicting the likelihood of onset of T1D based upon the combination of step (d) and the combination of step (d′).
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein in step (a′) the concentrations of free carnitine, acylcarnitine and total carnitine are measured.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein in step (e′) a total carnitine concentration of less than approximately 50 μmol/L in combination with a high risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein a total carnitine concentration of approximately 20-50 μmol/L in combination with a high risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 19. The method of claim 15, wherein in step (e′) a total carnitine concentration of less than approximately 40 μmol/L in combination with a moderate or low risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 20. The method of claim 15, wherein a total carnitine concentration of approximately 10-40 μmol/L in combination with a moderate or low risk HLA genotype is indicative of the likely future onset of T1D.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein in step (a) said biological sample is a blood sample.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein said blood sample is collected within 3 days (i.e. 72 hours) of the subject's birth.
 23. The method of claim 1, wherein step (b) is carried out by genetically screening a portion of said sample used in step (a).
 24. The method of claim 15, wherein step (a′) is carried out on the sample used in step (a).
 25. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a neonate.
 26. A method for identifying a neonatal subject for enrolment onto a potential prophylactic treatment program for T1D, which comprises performing the steps of claim 1 in a neonate so as to identify a neonate having a likelihood of onset of T1D and enrolling said neonate into a prophylactic treatment program.
 27. A method for the prophylactic treatment for T1D, which comprises the steps of: (a) performing the steps of claim 1; (b) identifying one or more subject having a likelihood of onset of T1D; and (c) prescribing to said one or more subject a prophylactic treatment for preventing or delaying the onset of T1D.
 28. A method for the prophylactic treatment for T1D, which comprises the steps of: (a) performing the steps of claim 25; (b) identifying one or more subject having a likelihood of onset of T1D; and (c) prescribing to said one or more subject a prophylactic treatment for preventing or delaying the onset of T1D.
 29. The method of claim 27, wherein said prophylactic treatment in step (c) comprises insulin replacement therapy.
 30. The method of claim 27, wherein said prophylactic treatment in step (c) comprises immunomodulation therapy.
 31. The method of claim 29, wherein the immunomodulation therapy comprises anti-CD3 treatment.
 32. The method of claim 27, wherein said prophylactic treatment in step (c) comprises photopheresis.
 33. The method of claims 28, wherein said prophylactic treatment in step (c) comprises a dietary supplement.
 34. The method of claim 32, wherein said dietary supplement comprises an amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite supplement.
 35. The method of claim 33, wherein said dietary supplement comprises a carnitine or acylcarnitine supplement.
 36. The method of claim 34, wherein said dietary supplement comprises a carnitine or acylcarnitine supplement.
 37. A method of treating a neonate identified as having a predisposition to T1D, comprising: administering a prophylactic composition that comprises one or more amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite in an amount sufficient to increase blood amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite levels to within the normal range.
 38. The method of claim 37, wherein said amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite is selected from the group consisting of: alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline, glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine.
 39. The method of claim 37, wherein said composition comprises all of alanine, arginine, aspartate, citrulline, glycine, glutamate, glutamine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, ornithine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine and valine, in amounts sufficient to restore total blood amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite levels to within the normal range.
 40. The method of claim 37, wherein said composition further comprises free carnitine and/or acylcarnitine and said administering comprises administering free carnitine and/or acylcarnitine in amounts sufficient to restore free carnitine, acylcarnitine or total carnitine levels to within the normal range.
 41. The method of claim 37, wherein said composition is administered parenterally.
 42. The method of claim 41, wherein said administering is in the form of a bolus injection.
 43. The method of claim 41, wherein said composition is a slow release composition.
 44. The method of claim 37, wherein said composition is administered orally.
 45. The method of claim 37, wherein said composition is administered in an amount sufficient to restore to within the normal range the blood level of said one or more amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite and/or said free carnitine and/or acylcarnitine and maintain said normal range for a duration of at least 48 hours.
 46. The method of claim 37, wherein said composition is administered in an amount sufficient to restore to within the normal range the blood level of said one or more amino acid, amino acid derivative or amino acid metabolite and/or said free carnitine and/or acylcarnitine and maintain said normal range for a duration of at least 72 hours 